Translating Classical Buddhism to Modern English

The Medium Discourses

Chapter 10: Forests

（一一三）中阿含林品 諸法本經第七 (第二小土城誦) 113. The Root of Things
中阿含經卷第二十八 Fascicle 28 of the Medium Discourses
東晉 罽賓 三藏 瞿曇僧伽提婆 譯 Translated by the Kashmiri Tripiṭa Gautama Saṅghadeva during the Eastern Jin (398 CE)
我聞如是： 一時，佛遊舍衛國，在勝林、給孤獨園。 1. Thus I have heard:1 One time, the Buddha traveled to the country of Śrāvastī and stayed at Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park in Jeta’s Grove.
爾時，世尊告諸比丘： 「若諸異學來問汝等： 『一切諸法以何為本？』 汝等應當如是答彼： 『一切諸法以欲為本。』 2. It was then that the Bhagavān addressed the monks, “Suppose those from other trainings come and ask you, ‘What is the root of all things?’ You should answer in this way: ‘Desire is the root of all things.’2
「彼若復問： 『以何為和？』 當如是答： 『以更樂為和。』 3. “Suppose they also ask, ‘What is it that increases them?’ You should answer in this way: ‘They are increased by contact.’3
「彼若復問： 『以何為來？』 當如是答： 『以覺為來。』 4. “Suppose they also ask, ‘What is it that brings them?’ You should answer in this way: ‘They are brought by feeling.’4
「彼若復問： 『以何為有？』 當如是答： 『以思想為有。』 5. “Suppose they also ask, ‘By what do they exist?’ You should answer in this way: ‘They exist by thinking and ideas.’5
「彼若復問： 『以何為上主？』 當如是答： 『以念為上主。』 6. “Suppose they also ask, ‘What is their high chief?’ You should answer in this way: ‘Mindfulness is their high chief.’6
「彼若復問： 『以何為前？』 當如是答： 『以定為前。』 7. “Suppose they also ask, ‘Which of them comes first?’ You should answer in this way, ‘Samādhi comes first among them.’
「彼若復問： 『以何為上？』 當如是答： 『以慧為上。』 8. “Suppose they also ask, ‘What is the highest of them?’ You should answer in this way, ‘Wisdom is the highest of them.’
「彼若復問： 『以何為真？』 當如是答： 『以解脫為真。』 9. “Suppose they also ask, ‘Which is genuine among them?’ You should answer in this way: ‘Liberation is genuine among them.’
「彼若復問： 『以何為訖？』 當如是答： 『以涅槃為訖。』 10. “Suppose they also ask, ‘By what are they ended?’ You should answer in this way: ‘They are ended by 7irvāna.’7
「是為，比丘，欲為諸法本。 更樂為諸法和。 覺為諸法來。 思想為諸法有。 念為諸法上主。 定為諸法前。 慧為諸法上。 解脫為諸法真。 涅槃為諸法訖。 是故，比丘，當如是學。 11. “Thus, monks, desire is the root of things. They are increased by contact. They are brought by feeling. They exist from thinking and ideas. Mindfulness is their high chief. Samādhi comes first among them. Wisdom is the highest of them. Liberation is genuine among them. They are ended by nirvāna. Therefore, monks, you should train yourselves.
「習出家、學道心。 習無常想。 習無常苦想。 習苦無我想。 習不淨想。 習惡食想。 習一切世間不可樂想。 習死想。 知世間好惡，習如是想心。 知世間習有，習如是想心。 知世間習、滅、味、患、出要如真，習如是想心。 12. “Develop the thought of leaving home and training on the path. Develop the idea of impermanence. Develop the idea that impermanence is painful. Develop the idea that painful things are no self. Develop the idea of impurity. Develop the idea of detestable food. Develop the idea that the whole world is unenjoyable. Develop the idea of death.8 To know what’s attractive and ugly in the world, develop such ideas and thoughts. To know the world’s formation and existence, develop such ideas and thoughts. To truly know the world’s formation, cessation, enjoyment, trouble, and escape, develop such ideas and thoughts.
「若比丘得習出家學道心者，得習無常想，得習無常苦想，得習苦無我想，得習不淨想，得習惡食想，得習一切世間不可樂想，得習死想。 知世間好惡，得習如是想心。 知世間習有，得習如是想心。 知世間習、滅、味、患、出要如真，得習如是想心者。 是謂比丘斷愛除結。 正知正觀諸法已，便得苦邊。」 13. “If a monk can develop the thought of leaving home and training on the path, he can develop the idea of impermanence, the idea that impermanence is painful, the idea that painful things are selfless, the idea of impurity, the idea of bad food, the idea that the whole world is unenjoyable, and the idea of death. To know what’s attractive and ugly in the world, he can develop such ideas and thoughts. To know the world’s formation and existence, he can develop such ideas and thoughts. To truly know the world’s formation, cessation, enjoyment, trouble, and escape, he can develop such ideas and thoughts. This refers to a monk who ends craving and gets rid of bondage. Having observed all things with right understanding and observation, he reaches the end of suffering.”
佛說如是。 彼諸比丘聞佛所說歡喜，奉行。 14. This is what the Buddha said. Those monks who heard what the Buddha taught rejoiced and approved.
諸法本經第七竟 (四百五十七字) End of the seventh sūtra, The Root of Things (457 Chinese characters)

Notes

  1. For the source text, cf. T26.1.602b28-3a2. AN 10.58, AN 8.83, and T59 are parallels of this sūtra.

    When we compare this sūtra to the other three parallels that exist, we can immediately notice that it matches the other C. translation (T59) more closely than the two Theravāda parallels, but all four texts are very similar in their core content. It seems likely that T59, which was translated more than a century before this version, is also from the Sarvāstivāda tradition, though it may have descended from a different canonical lineage. Sarvāstivādins seemed to have had at least two canonical traditions, perhaps three.

    The core of this discourse is a list of questions about “all things” (S. sarvadharma) that might be asked by non-Buddhists. The Buddha then supplies his monks with a set of simple answers to these questions that should be their replies. Both this version and T59 present nine questions. AN 8.83 gives us a list of eight questions, and two more are added in AN 10.58. Comparing MĀ 113, T59, and AN 8.83, we find eight questions in common. The ninth question in MĀ 113 and T59 is the tenth question in AN 10.58. The ninth question in AN 10.58 is unique to that text, probably added to make an even list of ten. As we shall, however, textual corruptions and variations have cropped up in the questions, but the answers are more consistent.

    Beyond these minor differences between the parallel lists, the major difference between MĀ 113 and T59 compared to AN 8.83 and AN 10.58 is that the Sarvāstivāda version includes a conclusion detailing a set of ideas for the monks to contemplate. (These ideas occur in other EBT sources, see the notes below for more details about them.) For their part, the P. versions include a longer introduction that repeats the questions twice before their answers are given. [back]

  2. all things. C. 一切諸法, C. 諸法 (T59), P. sabbe dhammā. While I’ve translated dharma generically here as “things,” it would seem from the answers to the questions about them that dharma here refers to psychological or doctrinal things, such as the five aggregates, defilements, virtues, and the like. These are not questions about physical things like rocks and trees. At least, not until they enter a person’s mind. [back]

  3. increased by contact. C. 以更樂為和, C. 更為習 (T59), P. phassasamudayā. The C. here must be using 和 as a synonym of 加 (“to add, increase”), which is an extension of its more common meaning of “to combine, join.” The equivalent was samudayā in both the P. parallels, which means something more like “origin, appearance, formation.”

    It’s of interest to note that the more common translations of samudaya to C. were 習 or 集, both being read to mean “accumulation” or “collection.” This reading happens to agree with S. samudāya (“accumulation, combination”). It may be a example of different readings resulting from the fact that the Kharosthi script used in Central Asia did not have a notation for long vowels, leaving the interpretation of some words up to the reader.

    Even so, the common translation of samudaya as “accumulation” or “collection” in C. translations by later luminaries who worked with Sanskrit texts after the disappearance of Kharosthi writing (e.g., Yijing and Xuanzang) indicates that this was not an accidental reading. It must have been the standard reading in Central Asian Buddhism during a long period of time. [back]

  4. they are brought by feeling. C. 以覺為來, C. 痛為同趣 (T59), P. vedanāsamosaraṇā. The S. equiv. may have been sama abhisaraṇa for T59’s C. translation. Here, it’s unclear what 來 (“to come, arrive, invite, bring”) translated. There are many Indic words with the basic meaning of “come,” but a word derived from S. samupasarati would have been similar to P. samosaraṇā. [back]

  5. they exist by thinking and ideas. C. 以思想為有, C. 念為致有 (T59), P. manasikārasambhavā. Again, T59’s C. translation 致有 (“bring about existence”) is much closer in meaning to P. sambhavā. Here in MĀ 113, the parallel term was apparently bhava rather than sambhava. This item is the second question in AN. [back]

  6. mindfulness is their high chief. C. 以念為上主, C. 思惟為明道 (T59), P. satādhipateyyā. T59 departs from the P. parallels and MĀ 113 entirely with “contemplation is their path of insight.” It’s unclear what the Indic original would have been. Here, however, MĀ 113 matches the P. adhipateyyā fairly well.

    The reader might notice that the grammatical case I’ve used to translate the answers to these questions varies while it does not in the original languages (Indic and Chinese). This is because some of the questions use verbs as their keywords (e.g., “increase,” “bring,” “exist”) while others are nouns or adjectives (e.g., “chief,” “first,” “highest”). This makes ablative or instrumental case sentences difficult in English since an action is required for these cases to make sense. I have switched to metaphorical equations when this happens (“mindfulness is chief” rather than the lit. reading “they are chief-ed by mindfulness”) [back]

  7. they are ended by nirvāna. C. 以涅槃為訖, C. 泥洹為畢竟 (T59), P. nibbānapariyosānā. This item isn’t found in AN 8.83, but it is the last question and answer in the other two parallels and here in this version. The existence of AN 8.83 suggests that the original version of this sūtra consisted of eight questions, to which one or two were added. [back]

  8. These seven ideas are the same as the seven perceptions found in AN 7.48, but the order of that list is different. Both are lists of saṃjñā (C. 想, P. saññā), which typically means “perception, idea, or concept” in Buddhist language. Given the abstract nature of these topics, idea or concept seems more natural as a translation to me. These ideas are found in lists ranging from five to ten items in size, but they occur somewhat rarely in Āgamas and Nikāyas. There is also a list of five ideas mentioned in MĀ 86, but there are no others beyond that in the Medium Discourses.

    We can find a basic Sarvāstivāda commentary on the meaning of these ideas in Xuanzang’s translation of the Saṅgītiparyāya. The shorter list of five ideas is there called the five ideas that bring liberation to fruition (五成熟解脫想, cf. T1536.26.423c4). We also find a list of six ideas called the six ideas that tend toward insight (六順明分想, cf. T1536.26.432c17).

    The full-blown list of ten ideas is also discussed in Xuanzang’s translation of the Mahāvibhāṣā (cf. T1536.27.836c23). In that later Abhidharma commentary, the list of ten is considered to be the complete one, which is then sometimes analyzed into smaller lists, like a list of seven ideas when discussing the eight liberations. A similar list of ten ideas is cited in the later prajñāpāramitā sūtras, too (e.g., in Xuanzang’s Śatasāhasrikā at T220.5.12a22 and Kumārajīva’s Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā at T223.8.219a11).

    The rarity of these lists in the Āgamas and Nikāyas coupled with the preference for a full list of ten ideas in later Buddhist literature suggests to me that these lists are not very old in terms of early Buddhist history, but the individual ideas are no doubt important principles taught by the Buddha. Ideas like impermanence or death were sometimes the sole subject of early discourses. Perhaps it was in later eras that these principles were collected together gradually into a program of ten contemplative exercises. It would explain the variations that we see when comparing different traditions. [back]

Translator: Charles Patton

Last Revised: 31 October 2025

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